According to the dominant theoretical framework in the field of human spatial memory, small spaces (e.g., maps) are mentally represented in an orientation dependent manner, such that familiar views are easier to recall and to recognize than are unfamiliar views, but large spaces (navigable rooms and larger) are mentally represented in an orientation independent manner, such that familiar and novel views are equally accessible. The authors examine recent investigations of the spatial reference systems used by the human memory system to represent the spatial structure of the environment, and based on their findings, propose a new theoretical framework. According to this theory, the locations of objects in the environment are represented in memory in terms of orientation-dependent frames of reference; orientation-dependent frames of reference are used at all spatial scales; and multiple views of a spatial layout do not lead to the construction in memory of a view-invariant cognitive map, and may produce multiple, orientation-dependent representations in memory. Figure 9
