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Randolph Blake |
Isabel Gauthier |
Rene Marois |
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Course Overview: This course provides a general introduction to
principles, techniques and findings in neuroimaging, including
an analysis of philosophical, biological and technological issues.
We will discuss the origins of neuroimaging signals, methods for
evoking functional brain activity (including event-related activity),
methods for analyzing functional data and limitations in interpretation
of neuroimaging results. Each week will also include readings
on the application of neuroimaging to specific problems in cognitive
neuroscience. Depending on availability of scanner time, each
student will spend time collecting and analyzing neuroimaging
data.
Classes will start promptly at 2:00 PM in Wilson 316 and students should be in their seats by that time.
GUIDING PRINCIPLES FOR THIS COURSE
Everything should be made as simple as possible, but not simpler
(Albert Einstein)
Anything worth doing is worth doing slowly (Gypsy Rose Lee)
The more the teacher teaches, the less the student learns (anonymous)
REQUIRED READINGS
Images of Mind, Posner and Raichle (Amazon)
Mind and Body, Wozniak (http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/Mind/Table.html)
Selected articles (found on web)
COURSE OVERVIEW
Week 1(8/25) Introductory comments, course aims, description of syllabus, overview.
Week 2 (9/1) Brief history of mind/brain localization: where(if
anywhere) is the mind; localization strategies; equipotentiality.
Neuroanatomy overview; terminology for finding your way around
the brain. Wednesday Sept. 1 is the last day students may add
courses or drop courses without an entry on the transcript. Readings:
Wozniak; for neuroanatomy tutorial, select website from: http://www.neuropat.dote.hu/
Week 3 (9/8) Overview of classic and contemporary neuroimaging
techniques: X-ray, Ultrasound, CT, SPECT, PET, MEG, MR spectroscopy,
TMS, fMRI. Readings: Raichle, 1998; Maguire et al, 1997; Nagarajan
et al, 1999; http://www.pet.upmc.edu/aboutpet.html
Week 4 (9/15) Basic concepts: magnetic resonance, optimization
of brain structural images. Reading: Ogawa et al (1998) On the
characteristics of functional magnetic resonance imaging of the
brain. Annu. Rev. Biophys. Biomol. Struct. 27:447-474. http://biomedical.annualreviews.org/cgi/content/abstract/2/27/447
Week 5 (9/22) Magnetic properties of oxyhemoglobin/deoxyhemoglobin,
vascular responses to neuronal activity, hemodynamic response
(BOLD response), spatial and temporal limits. Paper topic must
be approved by the end of this week (see "Paper Assignment"
below). Readings: Hoge et al, 1999
Week 6 (9/29) Pulse sequences, optimizing responses, structural scans, regularization
Week 7 (10/6) Designing fMRI studies: block design, event-related, odd-ball design
Week 8 (10/13) Data analysis: Subtraction methods, correlation methods, parametric methods
Week 9 (10/20) Statistical Analysis: pixel-based approach (t-stat, KS, linear models, non-parametric tests, etc.) vs ROI approach (anatomically-defined, functionally-defined). Outline of term paper to be submitted by the end of this week.
Week 10 (10/27) Statistical analysis continued; Correlating behavior with signal intensity
Week 11 (11/3) Flattened, inflated representations
Week 12 (11/10) Application of fMRI to sensory function: vision,
hearing, touch
Week 13 (11/17) Application of fMRI to cognitive function (imagery, sentence comprehension
Week 14 (11/24) Thanksgiving Break!
Week 15 (12/1) Application of fMRI to clinical function (pain, shizophrenia, phantom limb)
Week 16 (12/8) Summary and overview; what will we know in another decade?
Journal Readings (available on Web)
General
Raichle (1998) Behind the scenes of functional brain imaging:
A historical and physiological perspective. PNAS, USA, 95, 765-772.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/95/3/765
Blood flow, oxygen and neural activity
Hoge et al (1999) Linear coupling between cerebral blood flow
and oxygen consumption in activated human cortex. PNAS, USA, 96,
9403-9408.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/96/16/9403
MEG
Nagarajan et al (1999) Cortical auditory signal processing in
poor readers. PNAS, 96, 6483-6488. MEG study
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/96/11/6483
TMS
Paus et al (1997) Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation during Positron
Emission Tomography: A New Method for Studying Connectivity of
the Human Cerebral Cortex. The Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 3178-3184.
http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/abstract/17/9/3178
PET
Maguire et al (1997) Recalling Routes around London: Activation
of the Right Hippocampus in Taxi Drivers. The Journal of Neuroscience,
17, 7103-7110.
http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/abstract/17/18/7103
Shulman, Gordon L., Jacob Schwarz, Francis M. Miezin, and Steven
E. Petersen. Effect of motion contrast on human cortical responses
to moving stimuli. J. Neurophysiol. 79: 2794-2803, 1998.
http://jn.physiology.org/cgi/content/abstract/79/5/2794
Event-related fMRI
Menon et al (1998) Mental chronometry using latency-resolved functional
MRI. PNAS, USA. 95, 10902-10907.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/95/18/10902
Rosen et al (1998) Event-related functional MRI: Past, present,
and future. PNAS, USA. 95, 773-780.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/95/3/773
Buckner et al (1996) Detection of cortical activation during
averaged single trials of a cognitive task using functional magnetic
resonance imaging Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 93, 14878-14883.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/93/25/14878
Schacter, Buckner, Koutstaal, Dale, and Rosen (1997) Late Onset
of Anterior Prefrontal Activity during True and False Recognition:
An Event-Related fMRI Study NeuroImage, 6, 259-269.
http://www.idealibrary.com/cgi-bin/links/sici/1053-8119()6:%3c259:%3e2.3.CO;2-
Methodology: what defines a region, anatomy or function?
Kanwisher et al (1997) The Fusiform Face Area: A Module in Human
Extrastriate Cortex Specialized for Face Perception J. Neuroscience,
17, 4302 4311.
http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/abstract/17/11/4302
Puce et al (1996) Differential Sensitivity of Human Visual
Cortex to Faces, Letterstrings, and Textures: A Functional Magnetic
Resonance Imaging Study. J. Neurosci. 1996 16, 5205-5215.
http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/abstract/16/16/5205
Methodology: "averaging" brains
http://www.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/palau/Projects/ISubAv/
Methodology: between subject designs
Demb et al (1998) Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Early
Visual Pathways in Dyslexia. The Journal of Neuroscience, 18,
6939-6951.
http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/abstract/18/17/6939
Methodology: cortical surface reconstruction
Dale and Sereno (1999) Cortical surface based analyes. NeuroImage,
9, 195-207
http://www.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/palau/Projects/CorticalSurface/
http://www.idealibrary.com/cgi-bin/links/sici/1053-8119()9:%3c195:%3e2.3.CO;2-
Van Essen et al (1998) Functional and structural mapping of
human
cerebral cortex: Solutions are in the surfaces. PNAS, USA. 95,
788-795.
website: http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/95/3/788
Effect of attention on fMRI
Somers et al (1999) Functional MRI reveals spatially specific
attentional modulation in human primary visual cortex. PNAS, USA.
96, 1663-1668.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/96/4/1663
Ghandi et al (1999) Spatial attention affects brain activity
in human primary visual cortex. PNAS, USA. 96, 3314-3319.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/96/6/3314
Watanabe et al (1999) Task-dependent influences of attention
on the activation of human primary visual cortex PNAS, USA, 95,
11489-11492.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/95/19/11489
Kastner, Sabine; De Weered, Peter; Desimone, Robert; Ungerleider,
Leslie G. Mechanisms of directed attention in the human extrastriate
cortex as revealed by functional MRI. Science. Vol 282(5386),
Oct 1998, 108-111.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/282/5386/108
Memory/learning/hippocampus
Strange et al (1999) Segregating the functions of human hippocampus.
PNAS,USA. 96, 4034-4039.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/96/7/4034
Mapping visual areas
Wandell (1999) Computational neuroimaging of human visual cortex.
Annual Review of Neuroscience, 22, 145-173. http://biomedical.AnnualReviews.org/cgi/content/full/10/22/145
DeYoe et al (1996) Mapping striate and extrastriate visual areas in human cerebral cortex. PNAS, USA, 93, 2382-2386. http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/6/2382
Chen et al (1999) Retinotopic mapping of lateral geniculate
nucleus in humans using functional magnetic resonance imaging.
PNAS, 96, 2430-2434
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/96/5/2430
Language
Binder et al (1997) Human Brain Language Areas Identified by Functional
Magnetic Resonance Imaging. The Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 353-362
http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/abstract/17/1/353
Consciousness
Lumer and Rees (1999) Covariation of activity in visual and prefrontal
cortex associated with subjective visual perception. PNAS, 96,
1669-1673.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/96/4/1669
Whalen et al (1998) Masked Presentations of Emotional Facial
Expressions Modulate Amygdala Activity without Explicit Knowledge.
The Journal of Neuroscience, 18, 411-418.
http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/abstract/18/1/411
Odds and ends
Puce et al (1998) Temporal Cortex Activation in Humans Viewing
Eye and Mouth Movements. The Journal of Neuroscience, 18, 2188-2199.
http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/abstract/18/6/2188
Cho et al (1998) New findings of the correlation between acupoints
and corresponding brain cortices using functional MRI:
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/5/2670
Term Paper Assignment
All students enrolled for credit will write a 10 to 14 page (double spaced-normal margins/fonts) term paper on a topic of your choice within the field of cognitive neuroscience. This assignement will allow you to examine a substantive topic within cognitive neuroscience within the context of methodological issues surrounding research on that topic. The paper should not be a review of a field in cognitive neurosciences. Rather, your paper should focus on a methodological critique of a group of neuroimaging papers (3-6) addressing a given topic (e.g. neural basis of visuo-spatial attention, the involvment of the fusiform gyrus in face perception, etc).While writing this paper, you should ask yourself such questions as: Do these papers show similar or different results? And how much of the dissimilarities depend on specific procedural differences? What are the papers' pitfalls, shortcomings and/or innovations ? And what experiments would you design to alleviate these shortcomings? The paper will be graded on the basis of content, synthesis and style.
Don't select a topic that is very broad (e.g., memory and the brain) nor one that is too narrow (e.g., the role of the caudate nucleus in comprehension of Kanji characters in elderly Japanese males).
Where can you go to find your topic?
1. Do a literature search by topic using Psyclit or PsychFirst. Medline is often good for neuroimaging.
2. Browse through journals that publish papers on cognitive neuroscience, journals such as NeuroImage (available in our medical library). Also look in Science and Nature, for they publish cognitive brain imaging article every few issues. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, PNAS and The Journal of Neuroscience also have neuroimaging papers; the last two journals are available on the web.
3. If all else fails, ask one of us for suggestions.
Deadlines:
- You must have your topic proposal approved by one of the instructors
by the end of Week 5.
- You must submit an outline for your paper, including references,
by the end of Week 9.
- You must submit the final paper by the end of Week 15.
The penalty for lateness for the first two deadlines is 1/2 letter grade per weekday late. For the final paper the penalty is a letter grade per weekday late.
Classroom Presentation
The last couple of weeks of the course will be devoted to presentations by individual students. Each presentation should last about 20 minutes and should cover a topic of interest (perhaps the one you wrote about in your term paper). One week prior to your presentation, you should make available a paper relevant to your presentation, and all students will read each paper prior to the presentation.
Web Pages of Relevance to Students of NeuroImaging
Neuroanatomy
http://www9.biostr.washington.edu/da.html
(this is a particularly useful webpage that includes quizzes to
test your knowledge of neuroanatomy)
http://www.med.harvard.edu/AANLIB/home.html
(classic site, loaded)
http://www.mcms.dal.ca/smed/med2/bb.html
Basics of PET
http://www.pet.upmc.edu/aboutpet.html
http://www.physics.ubc.ca/~pet/sect3c.html
Basics of MRI
http://www.cis.rit.edu/htbooks/mri/mri-main.htm
Labs
http://white.stanford.edu/fmri.html
http://www.nmr.mgh.harvard.edu/fMRI/fMRI.html
http://stp.wustl.edu/
http://www.bic.mni.mcgill.ca/
http://www.mrctr.upmc.edu/
http://coglab.psy.cmu.edu/
Neuroimaging consortium
http://pet.med.va.gov:8080/incweb/inc.html
Animated sites
http://www.bic.mni.mcgill.ca/demos/
Selective Bibiolograph of Functional Neuroimaging Studies
(Psychology 344, Fall 1999)
Aine, C. J. (1995). 220,A conceptual overview and critique of functional neuroimaging techniques in humans: I. MRI/fMRI and PET.221, 9: 229-309.
Azari, N., K. Pettigrew, et al. (1993). 220,Early detection of Alzheimer's disease: a statistical approach using positron emission tomographic data.221, 13: 438-447.
Baxter, L. R., M. E. Phelps, et al. (1985). 220,Cerebral Metabolic Rates for Glucose in Mood Disorders.221, 42: 441-447.
Beason-Held, L. L., K. P. Purpura, et al. (1998). 220,PET reveals occipitotemporal pathway activation during elementary form perception in humans.221, 15: 503-510.
Berns, G. S., J. D. Cohen, et al. (1997). 220,Brain regions responsive to novelty in the absence of awareness.221, 276: 1272-1275.
Bonda, E., M. Petrides, et al. (1996). 220,Specific involvement of human parietal systems and the amygdala in the perception of biological motion.221, 16: 3737-3744.
Braun, A., T. Balkin, et al. (1998). 220,Dissociated pattern of activity in visual cortics and their projections during human rapid eye movement sleep.221, 279: 91-96.
Buchel, C., C. Price, et al. (1998). 220,Different activation patterns in the visual cortex of late and congenitally blind subjects.221, 121: 409-419.
Buckner, R. L., S. E. Petersen, et al. (1995). 220,Functional Anatomical Studies of Explicit and Implicit Memory Retrieval Tasks.221, 15: 12-29.
Cabeza, R. and L. Nyberg (1997). 220,Imaging cognition: an empirical review of PET studies with normal subjects.221, 9: 1-26.
Celesia, G. G., R. D. Polcyn, et al. (1982). 220,Visual Evoked Potentials and Positron Emission Tomographic Mapping of Regional Cerebral Blood Flow and Cerebral Metabolism: Can the Neuronal Potential Generators be Visualized.221, 54: 243-256.
Charlot, B., N. Tzourio, et al. (1992). 220,Different mental imagery abilities result in different regional cerebral bolld flow activation patterns during cognitive tasks.221, 30: 565-580.
Cheng, K., H. Fujita, et al. (1995). 220,Human Cortical Regions
Activated by Wide-Field Visual Motion:
H2^15 O PET Study.221, Journal of Neurophysiology 74:
413-427.
Chun, M. M. and P. Cavanagh (1997). 220,Seeing two as one: linking aparent motion and repetition blindness.221, 8: 74-79.
Conference, N. (1995). 220,Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain.221, 122: 296-303.
Conrad, B. and J. Klingelhofer (1989). 220,Dynamics of regional cerebral blood flow for various visual stimuli.221, 77: 437-441.
Corbetta, M., F. M. Miezin, et al. (1990). 220,Attentional Modulation of Neural Processing of Shape, Color, and Velocity in Humans.221, 248: 1556-1559.
Corbetta, M., F. M. Miezin, et al. (1990). 220,Attentional Modulation of Neural Processing of Shape, Color, and Velocity in Humans.221, 248: 1556-1559.
Corbetta, M., F. M. Miezin, et al. (1991). 220,Selective and divided attention during visual discriminations of shape, color, and speed: functional anatomy by positron emission tomography.221, 11: 2383-2402.
Corbetta, M., G. L. Shulman, et al. (1995). 220,Superior Parietal Cortex Activation During Spatial Attention Shifts and Visual Feature Conjunction.221, 270: 802-806.
Cowey, A. (1994). 220,Visual form discrimination from luminance or disparity cues: Functional anatomy by PET.221, 5: 2367-2371.
Cowey, A. (1994). 220,Visual form discrimination from color or motion cues: Functional anatomy by positron emission tomography.221, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91: 9965-9969.
Craig, A. D., E. M. Reiman, et al. (1996). 220,Funtional imaging of an illusion of pain.221, 384: 258-260.
Damasio, H., T. J. Grabowski, et al. (1996). 220,A neural basis for lexical retrieval.221, 380: 499-505.
Dawson, M. E. (1990). 220,Presidential address, 1989: Psycophysiology at the interface of clinical science, cognitive science, and neuroscience.221, 27: 243-255.
Decety, J., D. Perani, et al. (1994). 220,Mapping motor representations with positron emission tomography.221, 371: 600-602.
Demer, J. L., G. K. von Noorden, et al. (1988). 220,Imaging of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism in Amblyopia by Positron Emission Tomography.221, 105: 337-347.
Desimore, R. (1998). 220,Visual attention mediated by biased competition in extrastriate visual cortex.221, 353: 1245-1255.
Dolan, R., G. Fink, et al. (1997). 220,How the brain learns to see objects and faces in an impoverished context.221, 389: 596-599.
Dolan, R., G. Fink, et al. (1997). 220,How the brain learns to see objects and faces in an impoverished context.221, 389: 596-599.
Dolan, R. J., G. R. Fink, et al. (1997). 220,How the brain learns to see objects and faces in an impoverished context.221, 389: 596-599.
Drevets, W. C., H. Burton, et al. (1995). 220,Blood flow changes in human somatosensory cortex during anticipated stimulation.221, Nature 373: 249-252.
Elliott, R. and R. Dolan (1998). 220,Neural Response during preference and memoyr judgments for subliminally prsented stimuli: a functional neuroimaging study.221, 18: 4697-4704.
Ffytche, D. H., B. D. Skidmore, et al. (1995). 220,Motion-from-hue activates area V5 of human visual cortex.221, Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 260: 353-358.
Gheam, O., E. Mellet, et al. (1997). 220,Mental navigation along memorized routes activates the hippocampus, precuneus, and insula.221, 8: 739-744.
Goel, V., J. Grafman, et al. (1995). 220,Modeling other minds.221, NeuroReport 6: 1741-1746.
Goldenberg, G., I. Podreka, et al. (1989). 220,Cerebral Correlates of Imagining Colours, Faces and a Map-Spect of Regional Cerebral Blood Flow.221, 27: 1315-1328.
Goldenberg, G., I. Podreka, et al. (1989). 220,Cerebral Correlates of Imagining Colours, Faces and a Map-I. Spect of Regional Cerebral Blood Flow.221, 27: 1315-1328.
Goldstone, R. L. (1998). 220,Perceptual Learning.221, 49: 585-612.
Grady, C. L., A. R. McIntosh, et al. (1995). 220,Age-Related Reductions in Human Recognition Memory Due to Impaired Encoding.221, 269: 218-222.
Grubb Jr., R. L., M. E. Raichle, et al. (1978). 220,Measurement of Regional Cerebral Blood Volume by Emission Tomography.221, 4: 322-328.
Gulyas, B. and P. E. Roland (1994). 220,Binocular disparity discrimination in human cerebral cortex: Functional anatomy by positron emission tomography.221, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91: 1239-1243.
Gulyas, B. and P. E. Roland (1994). 220,Processing and Analysis of Form, Colour and Binocular Disparity in the Human Brain: Functional Anatomy by Positron Emission Tomography.221, 6: 1811-1828.
Gulyas, B., A. Cowey, et al. (1998). 220,Visual form discrimination from texture cues: a PET study.221, 6: 115-127.
Gur, R. C., L. H. Mozley, et al. (1995). 220,Sex Differences in Regional Cerebral Glucose Metabolism During a Resting State.221, 267: 528-532.
Hagstadius, S. and J. Risberg (1989). 220,Regional Cerebral Blood Flow Characteristics and Variations with Age in Resting Normal Subjects.221, 10: 28-43.
Hasnain, M., P. Fox, et al. (1998). 220,Intersubject variability of functional areas in the human visual cortex.221, 6: 301-315.
Haxby, J. V., C. L. Grady, et al. (1991). 220,Mapping the Functional Neuroanatomy of the intact human brain with brain work imaging.221, 29: 539-555.
Haxby, J. V., C. L. Grady, et al. (1991). 220,Mapping the Functional Neuroanatomy of the Intact Human Brain with Brain Work Imaging.221, 29: 539-555.
Heinze, H. J., G. R. Mangun, et al. (1994). 220,Combined spatial and temporal imaging of brain activity during visual selective attention in humans.221, 372: 543-546.
Hobson, J. A., R. Stickgold, et al. (1998). 220,The neuropsychology of REM sleep dreaming.221, 9: R1-R14.
Hochhaus, L. and J. C. Johnston (1996). 220,Perceptual repetion blindness effects.221, 22: 355-366.
Jonides, J., E. E. Smith, et al. (1993). 220,Spatial working memory in humans as revealed by PET.221, 363: 623-625.
Kessler, J., K. Herholz, et al. (1991). 220,Impaired Metabolic Activation in Alzheimer's Disease: A Pet Study During Continuous Visual Recognition.221, 29: 229-243.
Kinomura, S., J. Larsson, et al. (1996). 220,Activation by Attention of the Human Reticular Formation and Thalamic Intralaminar Nuclei.221, 271: 512-516.
Kiyosawa, M., T. M. Bosley, et al. (1989). 220,Positron Emission Tomography to Study the Effect of Eye Closure and Optic Nerve Damage on Human Cerebral Glucose Metabolism.221, 108: 147-152.
Kosslyn, S. M. (1994). 220,Identifying objects seen from different viewpoints: A PET investigation.221, Brain 117: 1055-1071.
Kosslyn, S. M. and K. N. Ochsner (1994). 220,In search of occipital activation during visual mental imagery.221, .
Kosslyn, S. M., W. L. Thompson, et al. (1995). 220,Topographical representations of mental images in primary visual cortex.221, 378: 496-498.
Kosslyn, S. M., L. M. Shin, et al. (1996). 220,Neural effects of visualizing and perceiving aversive stimuli: a PET investigation.221, 7: 1569-1576.
Kosslyn, S., W. Thompson, et al. (1997). 220,Neural Systems shared by visual imagery and visual perception: a positron emission tomography study.221, 6: 320-334.
Kosslyn, S., A. Pascual-Leone, et al. (1999). 220,The role of area 17 in visual imagery: convergent evidence from PET and rTMS.221, 284: 167-170.
Kushner, M. J., A. Rosenquist, et al. (1988). 220,Cerebral metabolism and patterned visual stimulation: A positron emission tomographic study of the human visual cortex.221, 38: 89-95.
Ledberg, A., B. T. O'Sullivan, et al. (1995). 220,Somatosensory Activations of the Parietal Operculum of Man. A PET Study.221, 7: 1934-1941.
Lueck, C. J., S. Zeki, et al. (1989). 220,The colour centre in the cerebral cortex of man.221, 340: 386-389.
Maguire, E. A., N. Burgess, et al. (1998). 220,Knowing Where and Getting There: A Human Navigation Network.221, 280: 921-924.
Martin, A., J. V. Haxby, et al. (1995). 220,Discrete Cortical Regions Associated with Knowledge of Color and Knowledge of Action.221, 270: 102-105.
Martin, A., J. V. Haxby, et al. (1995). 220,Discrete Cortical Regions Associated with Knowledge of Color and Knowledge of Action.221, Science 270: 102-106.
Martin, A., C. L. Wiggs, et al. (1996). 220,Neural correlates of category-specific knowledge.221, 379: 649-652.
Mckeefry, D., J. Watson, et al. (1997). 220,The activity in human areas V1/V2, V3, and V5 during the perception of coherent and incoherent motion.221, 5: 1-12.
Moscovitch, M., S. Kapur, et al. (1995). 220,Distinct neural correlates of visual long-term memory for spatial location and object identity: A postiron emission tomography study in humans.221, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92: 3721-3725.
Naatanen, R., R. J. Ilmoniemi, et al. (1994). 220,Magnetoencephalography in studies of human cognitive brain function.221, 17: 389-395.
Nagahama, Y., Y. Takayama, et al. (1996). 220,Functional anatomy on perception of position and motion in depth.221, 7: 1717-1721.
Nyberg, L., A. R. McIntosh, et al. (1996). 220,Activation of medial temporal structures during episodic memory retrieval.221, 380: 715-717.
O'Sullivan, B., P. E. Roland, et al. (1994). 220,A PET study of somatosensory discrimination in man, microgeometry versus macrogeometry.221, 6: 137-148.
Orban, G. A., P. Dupont, et al. (1995). 220,A motion area in human visual cortex.221, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92: 993-997.
Orban, G. A., P. Dupont, et al. (1996). 220,Task dependency of visual processing in the human visual system.221, 76: 215-223.
Orban, G. A., P. Dupont, et al. (1997). 220,Human brain activity related to the orientation discrimination tasks.221, 9: 246-259.
Pardo, J. V., P. T. Fox, et al. (1991). 220,Localization of a human system for sustained attention by positron emission tomography.221, 349: 61-64.
Pardo, J. V., P. T. Fox, et al. (1991). 220,Localization of a human system for sustained attention by positron emission tomography.221, 349: 61-64.
Paus, T., S. Marrett, et al. (1995). 220,Extraretinal Modulation of Cerebral Blood Blow in the Human Visual Cortex: Implications for Saccadic Suppression.221, 74: 2179-2183.
Paus, T., D. W. Perry, et al. (1996). 220,Modulation of cerebral blood flow in the human auditory cortex during speech: role of motor-to-sensory discharges.221, 8: 2236-2246.
Petit, L., C. Orssaud, et al. (1993). 220,PET study of voluntary saccadic eye movements in humans: Basal ganglia-thalamocortical system and cingulate cortex involvement.221, Jour Neurophysiol 69(4): 1009-1017.
Phelps, M. E., D. E. Kuhl, et al. (1981). 220,Metabolic Mapping of the Brain's Response to Visual Stimulation: Studies in Humans.221, 211: 1445-1448.
Posner, M. I. (1994). 220,Attention: The mechanisms of consciousness.221, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91: 7398-7403.
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